Muhammad
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Muhammad (Arabic محمد muḥammad; also Mohammed, Mohamet, and other variants<ref>Turkish: Muhammed; click here for the Arabic pronunciation</ref> <ref> .</ref> <ref> Welch, noting the frequency of Muhammad being called as "Al-Amin"(Arabic: الامين ), a common Arab name, suggests the possibility of "Al-Amin" being Muhammad's given name as it is a masculine form from the same root as his mother's name, A'mina. cf. Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad article; The sources frequently say that he, in his youth, was called with the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "faithful, trustworthy" cf. Carl W. Ernst (2004), p.85 </ref>), 570-632 C.E.,<ref>According to traditional Muslim biographers, Muhammad was born c. 570 in Mecca and died June 8 632 in Medina, both in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia.</ref> <ref name="EncWorldHistory"> Encyclopedia of world history (1998), p.452, oxford university press</ref> was an Arab religious and political leader who established Islam and the Muslim community (Ummah, Arabic: أمة) in Mecca to whom he preached. He united the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula into a federation of allied tribes with its capital at Medina.
He is considered a prophet in Islam. Muslims do not regard him as the founder of a new religion, but rather believe him to be the last in a line of prophets of God (Arabic Allah) <ref> The Cambridge History of Islam writes that "It is appropriate to use the word 'God' rather than the transliteration 'Allah'. For one thing it cannot be denied that Islam is an offshoot of the Judaeo-Christians tradition, and for another the Christian Arabs of today have no other word for 'God' than 'Allah'" cf p. 32</ref> and regard his mission as one of restoring the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and other prophets whose messages had become corrupted (only misinterpreted according to the majority of early and some modern scholars <ref> Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Qur'an and Polemics article </ref> <ref> MARTIN ACCAD, The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: an exegetical inventorial table (part I), Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2003</ref>) by people over time.<ref name="EspositoI"> John Esposito (1998) p.12; (1999) p.25; (2002) p.4-5</ref> <ref name="EoI"> Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad article </ref> <ref name="Peters"> F. E. Peters, Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11553-2, p.9 </ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at the age of forty, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God delivered through the angel Gabriel. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an,<ref> The term Qur'an was first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation that are discussed in Quran#Etymology cf. Encyclopedia of Islam article on the Qur'an.</ref> was memorized and recorded by his followers and compiled into a single volume shortly after his death. The Qur'an, along with the details of Muhammad’s life as recounted by his biographers and his contemporaries, forms the basis of Islamic theology.
[edit] Etymology
The name Muhammad etymologically means "the praised one" in Arabic.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Within Islam, Muhammad is known as "The Prophet" and "The Messenger". Although the Qur'an sometimes declines to make a distinction among prophets, in verse 33:40 it singles out Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets" (33:40) <ref name="Ernst"> Carl W. Ernst, Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World, University of North Carolina Press, p.80</ref>. The Qur'an also refers to Muhammad as "Ahmad" (61:6) (Arabic :احمد), Arabic for "more praiseworthy".
[edit] Overview
Born to ‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘Abdu’l-Muttalib, Muhammad initially adopted the occupation of a merchant. The Islamic sources indicate that he was a charismatic person known for his integrity. <ref name="Ernst1"> Carl W. Ernst (2004), p.85 </ref> The sources report that, in his youth, he was called by the nickname "Al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين ), a common Arab name meaning "faithful, trustworthy," and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator. <ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad article </ref> <ref name="EncWorldHistory"/> During the holy month of Ramadan, Muhammad would retreat to a cave located at the summit of Mount Hira, just outside Mecca in the Arabian Hijaz. There he fasted and prayed, and would often reflect on the troubles of Arab society that seemed to affect him profoundly. In the year 610, when Muhammad was about forty, he reported being visited in the cave by the Archangel Gabriel who commanded him to recite verses sent by God. According to Islamic belief, these revelations continued for the next twenty-three years, until his death. The collection of these verses is known as the Qur'an. He expanded his mission as a prophet, publicly preaching strict monotheism, preaching against the social evils of his day, and warning of a Day of Judgment when all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. <ref name="EncWorldHistory"/> He did not wholly reject Judaism and Christianity, two other monotheistic faiths known to the Arabs, but said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect those teachings.
After initially ignoring Muhammad's call, the elites in Mecca, commercially threatened by the growing popularity of his message, persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This continued, and intensified, over more than a decade. The hardships reached a new level for Muhammad after the deaths of his wife Khadija, an early convert to the faith, and his uncle Abu Talib, an important political protector of Muhammad. Eventually, in 622, he was forced to move out of Mecca in a journey known to Muslims as the Hijra (the Migration).<ref name="EncWorldHistory"/> He settled in the area of Yathrib (now known as Medina) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community.
Eight years of war between Muhammad and Meccan forces followed, ending with the Muslim victory and conquest of Mecca. The Muslims subsequently removed everything they considered idolatrous from the Kaaba. Most of the townspeople accepted Islam. In March 632, Muhammad led the pilgrimage known as the Hajj. On returning to Medina he fell ill and died after a few days, on June 8.
Under the caliphs who assumed authority after his death, the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, much of the Iberian Peninsula, and Anatolia. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the Eastern Hemisphere, including China and Southeast Asia.
[edit] Sources for Muhammad's life
The dates often given for Muhammad's life are 570-632 CE. The earliest surviving biography of Muhammad is a collection of hadith called the Sirah Rasul Allah or, the Life of the Apostle of God, by Ibn Ishaq, a member of the Tabi‘in generation who was born 85 years after Hijra -- approximately 717 CE -- and who died in 767.
Other sources for biographies of Muhammad are:
- the military chronicles of Waqidi (745-822)
- the biographies of Ibn Sa'd (783-845), a student of Waqidi
- later histories
- Qur'anic commentaries
- collections of Prophetic hadith
These texts were recorded more than a century, and often several centuries, after the death of Muhammad. The Qur'an is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad. <ref> FE Peters, The Quest for Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies (1991) p.291-315</ref> The Qur'an (a word that literally translates as "Recitation") was also maintained by the "Hafiz", people who memorised the entire document and recited it.
[edit] Western Academic view of Muhammad
The traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him (the sira and hadith literature) provide further information on Muhammad's life. <ref> John Esposito, Untitled, (1992?) p.7? </ref> The earliest surviving written sira (Biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) dates to 150 years after Muhammad, the compilation and (critical) analysis of which took place even later. <ref> The Arabs in History, by Bernard W Lewis, p. 33-34 </ref>
Modern historians agree that Muhammad lived during the 7th century C.E. and adopted various monotheistic traditions in an effort to replace the common polytheistic religions of the Arabian Peninsula, eventually gaining wide acceptance as a prophet.
[edit] Life based on Islamic traditions
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Most Muslims, and Western academics who trust Islamic traditions, accept a much more detailed version of Muhammad's life.
[edit] Before Medina
[edit] Genealogy
Muhammad traced his genealogy as follows:
Muhammad was born into the Quraysh tribe. He is the son of Abd Allah, who is son of Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) son of Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) son of Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra son of Ka`b ibn Lu'ay son of Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) son of Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) the son of Kinana son of Khuzaimah son of Mudrikah (Amir) son of Ilyas son of Mudar son of Nizar son of Ma`ad ibn Adnan, whom the northern Arabs believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to have been a descendant of Ishmael, son of Abraham. (ibn means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.) <ref> Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum: The Lineage and Family of Muhammad by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri </ref>
He was also called Abu-Qaasim (meaning "father of Qaasim") by some, after his short-lived first son.
[edit] Childhood
Muhammad was born into an affluent family settled in the northern Arabian town of Mecca. Tradition places it in the Year of the Elephant, commonly identified with 570. Some [citation needed] calculate his birthday as 20 April of that year, while Shi'a Muslims believe it to have been 26 April 570. Other sources calculate the year of his birth to have been 571. Muhammad's father, Abdullah, had died almost six months before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother Amina and became fully orphaned. "Many years later, when he was exiled by his Meccan opponents, on his first pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca, he stopped at his mother's grave and cried bitterly, bringing tears to the eyes of his companions." <ref> Minou Reeves, Muhammad in Europe, New York University Press, p.11, 2000 </ref> When he was eight years of age, his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, who had become his guardian, also died. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe, the most powerful in Mecca.
Mecca was a thriving commercial center, due in great part to a stone shrine (now called the Kaaba) that housed statues of many Arabian gods. Merchants from various tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable about foreign ways.
[edit] Middle years
Muhammad became a merchant. He "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea." <ref name="BerkWorldHistory"> Berkshire Encyclopedia of world history, v.3, p.1025 </ref> He gained a reputation for reliability and honesty that attracted a proposal from Khadijah, a forty-year-old widow in 595.<ref name="BerkWorldHistory"/> Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.
Ibn Ishaq records that Khadijah bore Muhammad six children: two sons named Al Qasem and Abdullah (who is also called Al Tayeb and Al Taher) and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first revelation. His son Qasim died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima.
The Shi'a say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatima, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister.
[edit] The Beginnings of the Qur'an
Muhammad often retreated to the cave of Hira on Jabal al-nur near Mecca. Here The first revelations of the Quran are reported to have been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel around the year 610. Muslim tradition narrates that the angel appeared and commanded him to recite the following verses:
Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.<ref>96:1-96:5</ref>
His wife Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal were the first to believe that Muhammad was a prophet. They were soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr and adopted son Zaid bin Muhammad (later known as Zaid bin Haarith.)
These revelations are reported to have frequently occurred over the next 23 years until his death. According to the tradition, the form of the revelations or messages from God was sometimes hearing the words spoken to him, but mostly he would have found them in his heart. "Muhammad believed he could easily distinguish between his own thinking and these revelations." <ref> The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 31 </ref> To people around Muhammad, the most convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations, according to Welch, must have been his mysterious seizures at the moments of inspiration. Welch states that graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, since they are unlikely to have been invented by later Muslims. Muhammad's enemies however accused him as one possessed, a soothsayer, or a magician since these experiences made an impression similar to those soothsayer figures well known in ancient Arabia.
Around 613, Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Others believed and joined him.
[edit] Rejection
The Cambridge History of Islam states that three following groups were forming the early converts to Islam: 1. Younger brothers and sons of great merchants 2. People who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it 3. The weak - mostly unprotected foreigners. Although these three groups of course converted because they believed the teaching of the Qur'an was correct, but these groups, The Cambridge History of Islam writes, were all suffering from the selfishness and unscrupulous dealings of the great merchants. <ref> The Cambridge History of Islam p.36 </ref>
As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. The great merchants tried to come to some arrangements with Muhammad in exchange for abandoning his preaching. They offered him admission into the inner circle of merchants and establishing his position in the circle by an advantageous marriage, but Muhammad rejected their offer. <ref> The Cambridge History of Islam, p.36 </ref> Muhammad and his followers were thus persecuted. Some of them fled to the Ethiopian Kingdom of Aksum and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian king (called Al-Negashi, or "The King"). see Islam in Ethiopia.
Several suras and parts of suras are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example al-Masadd, al-Humaza, parts of Maryam and al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, and Abasa.
In 619, both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as aamul hazn ("the year of sorrows"). Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. During this time Muslims endured ostracism, an economic embargo, poverty, hunger, even beatings and death threats.
[edit] Isra and Miraj
Some time in 620, Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night along with Angel Gabriel. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to "the furthest mosque" (in Arabic: Masjid al Aqsa), identified with the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured Heaven and Hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Ibn Ishaq, author of first biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience while later historians like Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir present it as a physical journey.<ref>Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.482, New York : Macmillan Reference USA</ref>Those Muslims subscribing to the latter view consider the place under the Dome of the Rock the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven.
| Timeline of Muhammad | |
|---|---|
| Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad | |
| c. 569 | Death of his father, `Abd Allah |
| c. 570 | Possible date of birth, April 20: Mecca |
| 570 | Legendary unsuccessful Ethiopian attack on Mecca |
| 576 | Death of Mother |
| 578 | Death of Grandfather |
| c. 583 | Takes trading journeys to Syria |
| c. 595 | Meets and marries Khadijah |
| 610 | First reports of Qur'anic revelation: Mecca |
| c. 610 | Appears as Prophet of Islam: Mecca |
| c. 613 | Begins spreading message of Islam publicly: Mecca |
| c. 614 | Begins to gather following: Mecca |
| c. 615 | Emigration of Muslims to Ethiopia |
| 616 | Banu Hashim clan boycott begins |
| c. 618 | Medinan Civil War: Medina |
| 619 | Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
| 619 | The year of sorrows: Khadijah and Abu Talib die |
| c. 620 | Isra and Miraj |
| 622 | Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) |
| 624 | Battle of Badr Muslims defeat Meccans |
| 624 | Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa |
| 625 | Battle of Uhud Meccans battle Muslims |
| 625 | Expulsion of Banu Nadir |
| 626 | Attack on Dumat al-Jandal: Syria |
| 627 | Battle of the Trench |
| 627 | Destruction of Banu Qurayza |
| 627 | Bani Kalb subjugation: Dumat al-Jandal |
| 628 | Treaty of Hudaybiyya |
| c. 628 | Gains access to Mecca shrine Kaaba |
| 628 | Conquest of the Khaybar oasis |
| 629 | First hajj pilgrimage |
| 629 | Attack on Byzantine empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah |
| 630 | Attacks and bloodlessly captures Mecca |
| c. 630 | Battle of Hunayn |
| c. 630 | Siege of Taif |
| 630 | Establishes theocracy: Conquest of Mecca |
| c. 631 | Rules most of the Arabian peninsula |
| c. 632 | Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk |
| 632 | Farewell hajj pilgrimage |
| 632 | Death (June 8): Medina |
[edit] In Medina
[edit] 1st Hijra
In 615, when a band of Muslims were counseled by the Prophet Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Ethiopia, which was ruled by a pious Christian king. see Islam in Ethiopia. In that year, his followers were fleeing from Mecca's new leading tribe, the reactionary Quraysh, who sent emissaries to bring them back to Arabia, but the King of Ethiopia protected the Prophet and his followers. Since then, the Prophet himself instructed his followers who came to Ethiopia, to respect and protect Ethiopia as well as live in peace with Ethiopian Christians. Accordingly, some scholars state that Ethiopia was the country that saved Islam from its near destruction and termination.
[edit] 2nd Hijra
By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then emigrated to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam, a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This Hijra or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).
Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of Aws and Khazraj. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes, divided into three major clans: Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qurayza and Banu Nadir, and some minor groups. <ref name="Camb"> The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39 </ref>
There was fighting in Yathrib for around a hundred years before 620. The Jewish tribes allied with other clans and were sometimes on opposing sides. <ref name="Camb"/> The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the great battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless "there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases." <ref name="Camb"/> A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire community. <ref name="Camb"/> <ref name="Esp"/> Among the things Muhammad did in order to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities). <ref name="Camb"/> <ref name="Esp"/>
Muhammad and his followers are said to have negotiated an agreement with the other Medinans, a document now known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book" could exist within the new Islamic State.
The Jewish groups had refused to acknowledge Muhammad as a prophet and in the document only appear second in character. [And] the prestige of his [Muhammad] military successes [later in life] gave him almost autocratic power. <ref> "Islām". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. (1993). Chicago, IL, United States: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. ISBN 0-85229-571-5.</ref>
Some academic historians attribute the change of qibla, the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former Temple in Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. According to Muslims, the change of qibla was seen as a command from God both reflecting the independence of the Muslims as well as a test to discern those who truly followed the revelation and those who were simply opportunistic. This change happened once the idols in Kaaba were removed and destroyed. Minou Reeves, Fellow of the Institute of Linguists at London, states that the change in qibla or the change in the fasting day from Ashura, corresponding to Yom Kippur, to Ramadan, only shows that Islam was instituted progressively and the claim that "Muhammad made up the religion as he went along, to suit the circumstances" is unjustified. <ref> Minou Reeves, Muhammad in Europe, New York University (NYU) Press, p.33 </ref>
[edit] War
Relations between Mecca and Medina rapidly worsened (see surat al-Baqara). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca.[citation needed] In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes.
In March of 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan, but then decided to teach the Muslims a lesson and marched against Medina. It should be noted that Islamic scholars question narratives regarding looting the caravan on the basis of the Qur'anic version of the account.<ref>They argue that these narratives contradict the Qur'anic version of the account, asserting that the caravan was one of the two targets which "weak believers" wanted to attack (8:5-8), but that the Muslims actually fought against Meccan army, as looting a defenceless caravan wouldn't require preparations which the Qur'an talks about (8:43). See, e.g., Tariq Hashmi. Cause of Battle of Badr, Al-Mawrid; Amin Ahsan Islahi. Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, Ist Ed., (Lahore: Faraan Foundation 2003), pp. 427-40; Shibli Nomani. Siratu al-Nabi, Ist Ed. vol. 2, (Lahore: Qazi Publishers 1981) pp. 49-52; Khalid Masud, Hayaat-e Rasul-e Ummi, 1st ed. (Lahore: Dar al-Tazkeer 2003), pp.319-25</ref> On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than three times (one thousand to three hundred - majority of Muslim historians put the exact total at 313) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died.<ref>Sir John Glubb, The Life and Times of Muhammad, p. 179-186.</ref> This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement.
[edit] Rule consolidated
To his followers, the victory in Badr apparently seemed a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood. Muhammad and his followers were now a dominant force in the oasis of Yathrib (Medina).
After Khadija's death, Muhammad had married Aisha, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor).
Muhammad's daughter Fatima married Ali, Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married Uthman. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus, all four caliphs were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided. (See Succession to Muhammad for more information on the controversy on the succession to the caliphate).
[edit] Continued warfare
In 625 the Meccan general Abu Sufyan marched on Medina with three thousand men. The ensuing Battle of Uhud took place on March 23 and ended in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina.
In April 627, Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the Battle of the Trench.
Following the Muslims' victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes.[citation needed]
[edit] Muhammad and the Jewish tribes of Medina
In the course of Muhammad's proselytizing in Mecca, he viewed Christians and Jews (whom he referred to as "People of the Book") as natural allies, sharing the core principles of his teachings, and anticipated their acceptance and support. Muslims, like Jews, were at that time praying towards Jerusalem.<ref name="Esp">Esposito, John. 1998. Islam: the Straight Path, extended edition. Oxford university press, p.17</ref> Muhammad was very excited to move to Medina, where the Jewish community there had long worshiped the one God.<ref name= "ER"> Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition, Lindsay Jones, Muhammad article, ISBN 0-02-865742-X </ref>
Many Medinans converted to the faith of the Meccan immigrants, but the Jewish tribes did not. Much to Muhammad's disappointment, they rejected his status as a prophet.<ref name="Esp"/> Their opposition "may well have been for political as well as religious reasons". <ref> Gerhard Endress, Islam, Columbia University Press, p.29 </ref> According to Watt, "Jews would normally be unwilling to admit that a non-Jew could be a prophet."<ref name="Camb1"/> Mark Cohen adds that Muhammad was appearing "centuries after the cessation of biblical prophecy" and "couched his message in a verbiage foreign to Judaism both in its format and rhetoric." <ref name="Cohen">Mark R. Cohen, Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages, p.23, Princeton University Press </ref> As Muhammad taught that his message was identical to those of previous prophets (such as Abraham, Moses and Jesus), the Jews were furthermore in the position to make some Muslims doubt about his prophethood; the Jews, according to Watt, could argue that "some passages in the Qur'an contradicted their ancient scriptures". <ref name="Camb1"/> Mark Cohen states that "Muhammad could only have appeared to [Jews] as an imposter whose... message bore but a skewed resemblance to biblical and rabbinic Judaism." <ref name="Cohen"/> On political reasons, Esposito writes that "the Jewish tribes, which had long lived in Medina and had political ties with the Quraysh ... cooperated with (Muhammad's) Meccan enemies."<ref name="Esp"/> Watt states that many of the Jews had close links with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy<ref name="Camb1"/> , "the potential prince of Medina" who "is said that but for the arrival of Muhammad, had not become" <ref> The Cambridge History of Islam, p.40 </ref> the chief arbitrator of the community. The Jews may have hoped for greater influence if Ubayy had become a ruler. <ref name="Camb1"/> <ref name="Camb1">The Cambridge History of Islam, p.43-44 </ref> Watt writes that the Islamic response to these criticisms was: <ref name="Camb1"/>
The Qur'an, met these intellectual criticisms by developing the conception of the religion of Abraham. While the knowledge of Abraham came from the Old Testament and material based on that, Abraham could be regarded as the ancestor of the Arabs through Ishmael. It was also an undeniable fact that he was not a Jew or Christian, since the Jews are either to be taken as the followers of Moses or as the descendants of Abraham's grandson, Jacob. At the same time Abraham had stood for the worship of God alone. The Qur'an therefore claimed that it was restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians.
Watt states that the charge of altering the scripture may mean no more than giving false interpretations to some passages, though in later Islam it was taken to mean that parts of the Bible are corrupt. Muslims were also arguing that there was nothing surprising in Muhammad's rejection by Jews, as that had had occurred to other prophets mentioned in Jewish scripture. Watt claims that the Quran "also went on to criticize Jewish exaggerations of their claim to be the chosen people"<ref name="WattM"> Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, p.116 </ref> and argued against the supposed claim of the Jews of Medina "that they alone had a true knowledge of God" (Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounters, p.14). The Qur'an also criticized the Jews for believing that Ezra is the Son of God, a claim unattested either in Jewish or other extra-Qur'anic sources. (Kate Zebiri, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, The Qur'an and Polemics) David Waines opines that the Qur'an is mirroring contemporary popular beliefs many of which probably bordered on heresy. (David Waines, An Introduction to Islam, p.27) Michael Cook considers the charge of considering Ezra as the Son of God to be petty or obscure. (Michael Cook, Muhammad, p.34)
In the Constitution of Medina, Muhammad demanded the Jews' political loyalty in return for religious and cultural autonomy.<ref name="Esp"><ref> Jacob Neusner, God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions, p.153, Georgetown University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-87840-910-6 </ref> However, after each major battle with the Medinans, Muhammad accused one of the Jewish tribes of treachery (See 2:100). After Badr and Uhud, the Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir, respectively, were expelled "with their families and possessions" from Medina. After the Battle of the Trench in 627, the Jews of Banu Qurayza were accused of conspiring with the Meccans; Qurayza men were beheaded, women and children enslaved, and their properties confiscated.<ref> Esposito, “Islam: the straight path”, extended edition, Oxford university press, p.10-11</ref> Watt writes that some of the Arab tribe of Aws wanted to honour their old alliance with Qurayza, are said to asked Muhammad to forgive the Qurayza for their sake as Muhammad had previously forgiven the Nadir for the sake of Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy. Muhammad met this feeling by suggesting that the fate of Qurayza should be decided by one of their Muslim allies and thereby avoiding any likelihood of blood-feud. A suggestion to which the Jews agreed. Muhammad appointed Sa'd ibn Mua'dh, a leading man among Aws, who passed execution sentence against Qurayza. Watt states that there is no need to suppose that Muhammad brought pressure on Sa'd ibn Mua'dh: Those of the Aws who wanted leniency for Qurayza seems to have been regarded Qurayza unfaithful only to Muhammad and not to Aws; the old Arab tradition required support of an ally, independent of the ally's conduct to other people. But Sa'd didn't want to allow tribal allegiance to come before the Islamic allegiance. <ref> Watt, Muhammmad: The prophet and Statesman, p. 173-174 </ref>
The Banu Qurayza incident has generated much controversy in the centuries since, and is therefore worth examining more closely here. Watt writes that "during the siege of Medina, Muhammad became anxious about their conduct and sent some of the leading Muslims to talk to them [the Jewish tribes]; the result was disquieting.<ref name="WattEnc"/> Though Qurayza does not appear to have committed any overt hostile act<ref name="WattEnc">Watt in Encyclopedia of Islam, Banu Qurayza Article</ref> and been overtly correct in their behaviour<ref name="CambrWatt"> The Cambridge History of Islam, p.49 </ref>, they had almost certainly<ref name="CambrWatt"/>[probably <ref name="WattEnc"/>] been involved in negotiations with the enemy <ref name="WattEnc"/> and would have attacked Muhammad in the rear had there been an opportunity.<ref name="CambrWatt"/> An attack from the south on the Muslim rear by Qurayza might have put an end to Muhammad's career. <ref> Watt, Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press, p.171 </ref>" Marco Scholler believes the Banu Qurayza were "openly, probably actively," supporting Meccans and their allies.<ref>Qurayza article, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, vol. 4, p.334</ref> Finally, Welch states that Muslims "discovered, or perhaps became suspected" that the Jews were conspiring with the enemy.<ref> Welch in Encyclopedia of Islam, Muhammad Article </ref>" A minority of academic scholars reject the incident holding that Ibn Ishaq, the first biographer of Muhammad, supposedly gathered many details of the incident from descendants of the Qurayza Jews themselves. These descendants allegedly embellished or manufactured details of the incident by borrowing from histories of Jewish persecutions during Roman times.<ref> W. N. Arafat, "Did Prophet Muhammad ordered 900 Jews killed?", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland(JRAS), pp. 100-107, 1976.</ref> Watt, however, finds this argument "not entirely convincing."<ref>Watt in Encyclopedia of Islam, Banu Qurayza Article </ref>
The motivation for Muhammad's actions was political rather than racial or theological.<ref name="Esp"/> John Esposito writes that the massacre of traitors was common practice, "neither alien to Arab customs nor to that of the Hebrew prophets." Watt writes that in Arab eyes, the massacre "wasn't barbarous but a mark of strength, since it showed that the Muslims were not afraid of blood reprisals."<ref>The Cambridge History of Islam, p.49</ref>
In Watt's view, the "Jews had opposed Muhammad to the utmost of their abilities and they were utterly crushed." Watt speculates that had Jews come to terms with Muhammad instead of opposing him, they had become partners in the Arab Empire and Islam a sect of Jewry. They could have secured very favourable terms with him, including religious autonomy. A great opportunity that was lost. <ref> Watt, "Muhammad, the prophet and statesman", p.191 </ref>
[edit] The truce of Hudaybiyya
Although verses (2:196-2:210) about the performing of Hajj had already come, Muhammad and Muslims did not perform it due to the enmity of the Quraish. It was the month of Shawwal 6 A.H. when Muhammad saw in a vision that he was shaving his head after the Hajj. <ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 242. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref><ref>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 249.</ref> Muhammad therefore decided to perform the Haj in the following month. Hence around the 13th of March, 628 with 1400 Companions he went towards Mecca without the least intention of giving battle.<ref name=Khan_243>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 243. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref> But the Quraish were determined to offer resistance to Muslims and they posted themselves outside Mecca, closing all access to the city. <ref name=Khan_243/>. In order to settle the dispute peacefully, Muhammad halted at a place called Hudaybiyya. Hence after series of talks a treaty was signed. The main points of treaty were the following:
- They have agreed to lay down the burden of war for ten years <ref name=treaty_terms>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 253.</ref><ref >Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1993). The Life of Muhammad (Translated from the 8th Edition By Ism'il Ragi A. Al Faruqi). Islami Book Trust, Kula Lumpur, 353.</ref>
- Muhammad, should not perform Hajj this year <ref name=treaty_terms/> <ref name=treaty_terms_khan>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 245. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref>
- They may come next year to perform Hajj (unarmed) but shall not stay in Mecca for more than three days <ref name=treaty_terms/> <ref name=treaty_terms_khan/>
- Any Muslim living in Mecca cannot settle in Medina, but Medinan Muslims may come and join Meccans (and will not be returned). <ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 246. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref>
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, on the way to Medina, God revealed to the Prophet a new chapter of the Qur'an named "Al-Fath" (The Victory) 48:1-48:29. The new Revelation left no doubt in Muslims' minds that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one. <ref>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 255.</ref><ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 247. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref>. With the passage of time, it became more and more apparent why the Qur'an had declared the truce a victory. The men of Mecca and Medina could now meet in peace and discuss Islam. Hence, during the following two years the community of Islam more than doubled.<ref>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 259.</ref> <ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 248. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref> <ref >Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1993). The Life of Muhammad (Translated from the 8th Edition By Ism'il Ragi A. Al Faruqi). Islami Book Trust, Kula Lumpur, 356.</ref>
[edit] Muhammad's letters to the Heads of State
After the truce signed by the Hudaybiyya, Muhammad is said to have sent letters to many rulers of the world, demanding they convert to Islam. <ref name=King_Lings>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 260.</ref> <ref name=Kings_Khan>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 250-251. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref><ref >Haykal, Muhammad Husayn (1993). The Life of Muhammad (Translated from the 8th Edition By Ism'il Ragi A. Al Faruqi). Islami Book Trust, Kula Lumpur, 360.</ref> Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Chosroes of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others. <ref name=King_Lings/> <ref name=Kings_Khan/>
[edit] After the conquest
[edit] The conquest of Mecca
The truce of Hudaybiyya had been in force for two years. <ref name=khan_274>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 274. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref><ref>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 291.</ref>. The tribe of Khuz'aah had a friendly relationship with Muhammad, while on the other hand their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had an alliance with the Meccans.<ref name=khan_274/><ref name=Lings_291>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 291.</ref> A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuz'aah, killing a few of them <ref name=khan_274/><ref name=Lings_291/>. The Meccans helped their allies (i.e., the Banu Bakr) with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting <ref name=khan_274> <ref name=khan_274/>. After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were the following <ref name=khan_274_275>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 274-275. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref>. After the fighting Muhammad offered Meccans following three conditions<ref name=khan_274_275>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 274-275. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref>.
- The Meccans were to pay blood-money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, or
- They should have nothing to do with the Banu Bakr, or
- They should declare the truce of Hudaybiyya null.
The Meccans replied that they would accept only the third condition<ref name=khan_274_275>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India), 274-275. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.</ref>. However, soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Safyan to renew the Hudaybiyya treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad. Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign. <ref>Lings, Martin (1994). Muhammad: His Life based on the earliest sources. Suhail Academy Lahore, 292.</ref>.
In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. Most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad subsequently destroyed all of the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba, without any exception. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine was converted to a Muslim shrine.
[edit] Unification of Arabia
The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at Hunayn effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. However, this authority was not enforced by a regular government, as Muhammad chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam.
[edit] Death
In 632Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with head pain and weakness. He succumbed on Monday, June 8, 632, in the city of Medina, at the age of sixty-three. He is buried in the Muhammad's tomb in the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina.
[edit] Muhammad as a military leader
For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a religious leader. He took up the sword late in his life. He was an active military leader for ten years.
[edit] Family life
Muhammad was first married to Khadijah at the age of 25 with whom he lived in happiness and fidelity during the prime of his life for 25 years. <ref name="Esp2"> John Esposito, Islam the striaght path, p.18</ref> The death of Khadijah, his dear wife with whom he shared his every hope and fear seemed inconsolable and some of his friends advised him to marry again to reduce his grief but he was reluctant to do so. <ref> Minou Reeves, Muhammad in Europe, New York University Press, p.46, 2000</ref> <ref> Vern L. (Vern LeRoy). Bullough, Brenda K Shelton, Sarah Slavin, The Subordinated Sex: History of Attitudes Towards Women, p.119, University of Georgia Press, 1988, ISBN 0-8203-2369-1 </ref> It was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint Hakim, that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha. 'Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to marry both. It had already been agreed that Aisha should marry another man, whose father, though still pagan, was friendly to the Muslims. By common consent, however, this agreement was set aside and Aisha was betrothed to Muhammad.' <ref>W. Montgomery Watt, Aisha in the Encyclopedia of Islam</ref> As was common among Arabs and particularly among nobles and leaders of the Arabian society, later Muhammad married more wives mostly because of social and political motives, to make for a total of eleven, of whom nine or ten were living at the time of his death. <ref name="Esp2"/> "As was customary for Arab chiefs, many were political marriages to cement alliances." For example, as Watt in Encyclopedia of Islam states, Muhammad's marriage to Aisha to 'must have seen ... a means of strengthening the ties between himself and Abu Bakr, his chief follower.' <ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, Aisha article</ref> "Others were marriages to widows of his companians who had fallen in combat and were in need of protection. Remarriage was difficult in a society that emphasized virginity." However these motivations should not obscure the fact that Muhammad was attracted to his wives and enjoyed his wives. Muhammad gave much emphasis to the importance of family and was concerned for his wives. He also viewed sex as "a gift from God to be enjoyed within the bonds of marriage" <ref name="Esp2"/> Muhammad, by all indications, "did not behave like a traditional head of household." <ref name="Asma"> Asma Barlas, "Believing Women" in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an, University of Texas Press, p.125 </ref> Some of Muhammad's companians were "shocked by the way he allowed his wives to stand up to him and answer him back. Muhammad regularly helped with household chores, mended his own cloths, preparing his food and took his wives’ advice seriously. On one occasion Umm salamah, the most intelligent of his wives, helped him to prevent a mutiny." <ref name= "ER"> Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition, Lindsay Jones, Muhammad article, ISBN 0-02-865742-X </ref> <ref name="Asma"/> Sometimes his wives were of worry, for example when Muhammad found them quarrelling about "the division of booty after a raid, he threatened to divorce them all unless they lived more strictly in accordance with Islamic values (33:28-29)" <ref name="ER"/>
Among Muhammad's wives, the status of Maria al-Qibtiyya is disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, or a wife.
Aisha was the only virgin wife of Muhammad. <ref name="Esp2"/> Watt states that she 'cannot have been more than twelve years old when the marriage was consummated, while Spellberg writes that Aisha's youth might have been deliberately emphasized by scholars during the Abbasid caliphate to reject Shi'a political claims for the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib.<ref name="spell">D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994</ref>
Muhammad had children by only two of these unions. Khadijah is said to have borne him four daughters and a son; only one daughter, Fatima, survived her father. Shi'a Muslims dispute the number of Muhammad's children, stating that he had only one daughter, and that the other "daughters" were step-daughters. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son, but the child died when he was ten months old. Asma Barlas, states that Muhammad "was far more progressive than his peers on the issue of children's position in the community."<ref name="Asma"/>
William Montgomery Watt states:
He seems to have been specially fond of children and to have got on well with them. Perhaps it was the yearning of a man who saw all his sons die as infants. Much of his paternal affection went to his adopted son Zayd. He was also attached to his younger cousin 'Ali ibn-Abi-Talib, who had been a member of his household for a time... For a time a grand-daughter called Umamah was a favourite. He would carry her on his shoulder during the public prayers, setting her down when he bowed or prostrated, then picking her up again. On one occasion he teased his wives by showing them a necklace and saying he would give it to the one who was dearest to him; when he thought their feelings were sufficiently agitated, he presented it not to any of them, but to Umamah...He was able to enter into the spirit of childish games and had many friends among children. He had fun with the children who came back from Abyssinia and spoke Abyssinian. these children were called wiccan followers of EVIL!
[edit] Companions
The term Sahaba (companion) refers to anyone who meets three criteria: to be a contemporary of Muhammad, to have heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion, and to be a convert to Islam. Companions are considered the ultimate sources for the oral traditions, or hadith, on which much of Muslim law and practice are based. The following are a few examples in alphabetic order:
[edit] Muhammad the reformer
Islamic law transformed the nature of society and family. <ref> Bloom and Blair (2002), p. 45 </ref> Bernard Lewis, Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University, believes that the advent of Islam in a sense was a revolution which only partially succeeded after long struggles due to tensions between the new religion and very old societies in the countries that the Muslims conquered. He thinks that one such area of tension was a consequence of what he sees as the egalitarian nature of Islamic doctrine. Islam from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents."<ref>Lewis, Bernard. "Islamic Revolution", The New York Review of Books, January 21, 1998.</ref>
John Esposito, professor of Islamic Studies at Georgetown University, sees Muhammad as a reformer who did away with many of the terrible practices of the pagan Arabs. He states that Muhammad's "insistence that each person was personally accountable not to tribal customary law but to an overriding divine law shook the very foundations of Arabian society... Muhammad proclaimed a sweeping program of religious and social reform that affected religious belief and practices, business contracts and practices, male-female and family relations."<ref>Esposito, John (2002). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press, 30. ISBN 0-19-515435-5.</ref>. Esposito holds that the Qur'an's reforms consist of 'regulations or moral guidance that limit or redefine rather than prohibit or replace existing practices.' He cites slavery and women's status as two examples.
[edit] Social security and family structure
William Montgomery Watt, a scholar of Islamic studies, states that Muhammad was both a social and moral reformer in his day and generation. He asserts that Muhammad created a "new system of social security and a new family structure, both of which were a vast improvement on what went before. By taking what was best in the morality of the nomad and adapting it for settled communities, he established a religious and social framework for the life of many races of men."<ref>Watt (1961), p. 229</ref>
[edit] Slavery
The Qur'an makes numerous references to slavery, regulates it and thus implicitly accepts it (2:178, 16:75, 30:28). Bernard Lewis states, "Slavery existed in all the ancient civilizations of Asia, Africa, Europe, and pre-Columbian America and had been accepted and even endorsed by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as other religions of the world." Lewis, however, states that Islam brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching consequences. "One of these was the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances," Lewis continues. The position of the Arabian slave was "enormously improved": the Arabian slave "was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human being with a certain religious and hence a social status and with certain quasi-legal rights." <ref name=Lewis> Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ Press 1994, chapter 1 </ref>
In Muslim lands, in contrast to the ancient and colonial systems, slaves had a certain legal status and had obligations as well as rights to the slave owner, Bernard Lewis states. Lewis speculates that it was for this reason that "the position of the domestic slave in Muslim society was in most respects better than in either classical antiquity or the nineteenth-century Americas." <ref name="Lewis 3"> Bernard Lewis, (1992), pp. 78-79 </ref> The pressure from the European opponents of slavery on the Ottoman empire to abolish slavery was not because of the situation of slaves in Muslim lands (as it was no worse than, and even in some cases better than, that of the free poor) but because the processes of acquisition and transportation of slaves to Muslim lands often imposed appalling hardships although "once the slaves were settled in Islamic culture they had genuine opportunities to realize their potential. Many of them became merchants in Mecca, Jedda, and elsewhere." <ref name="Lewis 3"> Bernard Lewis, (1992), pp. 78-79 </ref> Lewis states that the practice of slavery in the Islamic empire represented a "vast improvement on that inherited from antiquity, from Rome, and from Byzantium."<ref name=Lewis /> Although slavery was not abolished, Annemarie Schimmel asserts that as the reforms seriously limited the supply of new slaves, slavery would be theoretically abolished with the expansion of Islam.<ref name="schimmel">Schimmel (1992) p. 67</ref>
[edit] Women's rights
Majid Khadduri, professor and director of Middle East Studies at the School for Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University, writes that under the Arabian pre-Islamic law of status, women had virtually no rights. Islamic law, however, provided women with a number of rights. <ref name="majid"> Majid Khadduri, Marriage in Islamic Law: The Modernist Viewpoints, American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 213-218 </ref> John Esposito, professor of Islamic Studies at Georgetown University, states that the reforms affected marriage, divorce, and inheritance. <ref name="Espos"> John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path p. 79 </ref> Women we